PKX to JFK

A study on non-places, modernity, and place identity from Beijing Daxing International Airport to the TWA Terminal in John F. Kennedy AirportArchitecture & Memory

Prof. Heather Grossman
Apr, 2020

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Since the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 that lowered airfares, flying has become one of the most efficient ways to travel and a common experience.[1]With today’s travellers focusing on their destinations, the routines and processes revolving around aviation have become tedious or even miserable to many. However, this was not always the case. Air travel was framed through a lens of romanticism and nostalgia when commercial air travel hit peak popularity after the Second World War and the 1950s and 1960s were named the “golden age of aviation”.[2]During these two decades, flying became a novel and luxurious means of transit, so rather than focusing on their destinations, passengers celebrated and focused on the act and process of flying itself. As the cost to fly lowered over the past few decades, the novelty and nostalgia that had once surrounded air travel gradually died down. Flying today is less of a special event than an essential service. This shift of perception surrounding air travel heavily affected the design approaches of its related spaces, including airport expresses, airports, airplane cabins, and hotels. To bring focus to the act of travelling, this paper will bring the reader on a virtual journey and analyze theplace identities along the way. The analysis heavily utilizes Marc Augé’s theory of “non-places”, spaces that are transitional, ephemeral, and lack cultural or historical connotations.[3] Our journey into non-places begins with Beijing’s Daxing airport, continues on a flight, arrives at New York’s John F. Kennedy Airport, and ends at the TWA Hotel.

Reaching PKX: Airport Express Trains and Non-Placeness

“Welcome aboard the airport express. Please stow your luggage and take a seat for this short ride that brings you from downtown Beijing to the Daxing Airport in a speedy twenty-eight minutes. Please relax and enjoy the complimentary wi-fi on board, courtesy of the national bank.”

An air traveller’s journey into non-placesbegins long before the first sight of an aircraft. Since the operation of airplanes requires large open landscapes, few airports are located in city centres. Hence most travellers who live in cities either drive or take public transit to the suburbs to access air travel. The recent surge of airport express trains best illustrates our attitude towards air travel shifting from twentieth-century modern to twenty-first-century supermodern.

Augé defines places as spaces that carry anthropological significance, where history or specific aspects of culture are embodied.[4]

Placesoften emphasize the past. A place such as St. Peter’s Basilica, point to the history of Rome and Christianity, transcending the visitor from the present into a distant past. Non-places, on the other hand, are hyper-focused on the present.[5]The defining characteristic for a non-place is its abstractness and our inability to assign cultural and historical value to a certain space. Non-placesare often described as “space”, which in it itself is an abstract term that indicates our inability to assign an identity to said spaces.[6] As we are often uneasy with the lack of historical identity non-placespossess, texts are a common attempt to assign identity to non-places[7].

In the context of the airport express, the name for the service itself is an example of assigning place identity. Normally airport expresses include elements of the city they serve in their title, such as the “Toronto Union-Pearson Express” and the “Taoyuan International Airport MRT”. In the case of Beijing Daxing Airport and New York’s JFK Airport, both the airport expresses hint to being part of a larger network. While the Beijing Airport Express “Beijing Xiong’an Intercity Railway” is geographically descriptive, illustrating that Daxing Airport is located between two large cities, this nevertheless is an attempt to contextualize the non-placeness of Daxing Airport. “NYC MTA AirTrain Subway Service”, on the other hand, not only suggests the airport’s ties to a major city, but it also contextualizes the establishment of the airport express. The choice of including New York City’s “MTA” (Metropolitan Transportation Authority) in the title of the airport express illustrates to visitors that the airport express is merely a branch of an already established corporation. In this case, not only is city identity brought in, specific aspects of the city - the corporate identity of MTA - is used to obliterate the abstractness of the non-place. More corporate identity is often used to contextualize airport expresses with the use of advertising. Billboards are common ways to help travellers gain a sense of local resident lifestyles (figure 1 & 2). A more embedded advertising example is the service announcement given on the express train, such as the Toronto Union Pearson Express’ “Enjoy the complimentary wifi during your twenty-five-minute ride, courtesy of the CIBC.” In this instance, corporate identity is more forcefully yet artfully broadcasted to the user through providing an essential service (figure 3 & 4).

Departure: Beijing Daxing International Airport (PKX) 21st Century supermodernity, place identity, and cultural memory

“We are arriving at Beijing Daxing Airport. This is the station for all passengers transferring for domestic and international flights. Remember to take your luggage and tap off as you leave the train.”

Inaugurated in 2019, The Beijing Daxing Airport (PKX) is the second airport to be built in China’s Capital.[8]The new airport is meant to alleviate pressure from the already overflowing Beijing Capital Airport (PEK), while also stimulating development in the southern portion of the city.[9]Once full operation is reached, the new airport will have the capacity to accommodate 200 million passengers a year.[10] As the second-largest airport in the world constructed within the last five years, Daxing Airport effectively captures our attitude towards aviation and the perception of supermodernity today.[11]

Moreover, Zaha Hadid Architects, as the principal architects of the Daxing Airport, continued their trademark parametric design for this airport. The form of the airport consists of five terminal wings that meet at a central, shared retail and check-in space (figure 5).[12]The overall starfish form is a result of maximized efficiency. Zaha Hadid Architects stated the central, radiating overall design and its stacked approach for international and domestic routes allows passengers with connecting flights a maximum eight-minute foot travel time.[13]

 

The parametric style that is used in designing Daxing Airport has emerged as a new global architecture style over the last two decades. This style focuses on algorithmic thinking, where designers use mathematical parameters to design instead of directly manipulating forms.[14]This often results in curvilinear, intricate, and complex designs that would have been difficult to achieve without the aid of algorithmic software. Patrik Schumacher, the principal of Zaha Hadid Architects, states how parametric design has succeeded the International Modernism style in becoming the new dominant global style in avant-garde designs in his book Parametricism. The main contributing factor is that computers have revolutionized the design process, allowing labour-intensive analytical and calculative work to be carried out efficiently.[15]Following this logic, mathematical and analytical aspects of Daxing International Airport are not hidden in the background but are instead advertised as the main framework driving the design. Descriptions such as “The terminal’s compact design ensures the farthest boarding gate can be accessed in a walking time of fewer than eight minutes” and “less than 600 metres are between checkpoints and gates” are put on the front page of both Zaha Hadid Architect’s portfolio website as well as Daxing Airports official page, showing that efficiency is an important selling factor for this non-place.[16]

The choice of prioritizing efficiency as the main driving factor of the design for the airport is worthy of further examination. While Beijing is a well-established place, with a long history and prominent culture, the cultural capital of Chinese culture was not capitalized on in the design of the new airport, a non-place. Although Zaha Hadid Architects states that the radial design “echoes traditional Chinese spaces organized around a courtyard”, the design of the interior spaces, as shown through photographs and renderings on the webpage, does little to invoke traditional Chinese culture (figure 6 & 7).[17]Likewise, traditional Chinese culture is not advertised on the airport’s webpage either. The detachment from history and desire to further abstract the design of this non-place can be viewed as the Chinese government’s attempt to “modernize” its image. Since the Chinese Economic Reform in 1978, China’s GDP has risen tenfold.[18] Despite its ascension to the second largest world economy China continues to be labelled as a “developing” country. While the criteria defining “developed” and “developing” countries itself is unclear and has been debated over on how accurately it reflects a country’s stage in development, it nevertheless influences the general perception and labelling of a nation. By constructing a second airport in its capital city in the supermodern parametric style, the Chinese government displays its economic ability while advertising itself as innovative. This is an interesting departure from traditional Chinese culture, as historically China regarded itself as the “nation of courtesy”, where people upheld traditions and were respected for doing so. By constructing an airport that does not reference cultural heritage, the result is twofold: First is that the airport, here as a national icon representing the Chinese government, appears to others as modern. This signals to other countries that the entire nation not only has innovative technology but is also up-to-date with the latest school of thought and trends. It can also be interpreted as an elegant decision to not exploit cultural memory when creating such a national project. The second result is that the Daxing Airport highlights specific parts of China’s long history. The current government, the People’s Republic of China only came to rule after the Chinese Civil War in 1949, a relatively short period of a 3000-year-old nation.[19]The decision to not create an explicitly traditional Chinese airport sets the current People’s Republic of China’s government apart of historical ones. It erases and skips pass China’s colonized past during the eighteenth to twentieth century and the failed economy caused by the Cultural Revolution hosted by the current party in the 1960s.[20]The design of Daxing Airport flattens the depth and multi-fadedness of China’s long cultural memory and history and only highlights the success Xi Jinping’s regime has achieved. This is especially evident in early construction photos of Daxing Airport, as seen on Zaha Hadid Architects’ website, where the People Republic of China’s red flag is the only element of colour standing out from the muted airport construction materials (figure 8 & 9). Xi’s government carefully uses Daxing Airport’s non-placeness to represent China’s well-established placeness. The Xi government’s achievements are thus set apart and highlighted in China’s long history.

PKX Boarding Lounge: Waiting lounge, non-place, and identity

“This is the boarding call for group one ‘diamond status frequent flyers’ bound for New York JFK. Please have your boarding pass and passport profile page ready in your hand as you approach the boarding gate. We ask that non-group one passengers remain in their seats until called.”

Prior to boarding the aircraft, passengers are subject to several layers of identity checks, once at the check-in gate and once at the boarding gate. This confirmation of identity is framed as a safety procedure. However, this “proof of innocence” is not a procedure limited to air travel spaces but is a common practice among all non-places.[21]The users of non-spaces are only granted access when they accede to anonymity by providing proof of identity.[22] In a non-place such as a supermarket, users are only granted access if they can prove their identity through their buying power, such as their ability to pay with a credit card.[23]In non-places, the individual must confirm their identity, only to be classified as a generalized label, such as the passenger or the shopper.[24]The loss of individuality, however, is not fully liberating. As the loss of identity is uncomfortable to many, non-place users tend to search for social cues to help understand their passerby. This search for identity can come from observing tangible elements, such as other’s outfits and appearances, to intangible choices, such as the airline one chooses to fly with. The desire to gain some identity in a crowd of anonymity does not only apply from one individual to another but also applies internally to each individual. In the case of air travel, the differentiation of cabin classes is a prime example. Not only do first and business class flyers enjoy larger leg rooms and amenities, but they also board prior to all economy passengers. The ability to board as “group one” allow these travellers to parade through all other passengers in the waiting lounge and display their significance. In a non-placesuch as the waiting lounge, users surrender to anonymity but seek individual identity both for themselves and for others by making generalizing judgements based on superficial appearances.

Flight PKX to JFK: Cabin Space, non-place, and identity

“Welcome aboard flight 062 bound for New York JFK Airport. The cabin door is now closed and we will be taking off shortly. Please stay seated until we have reached cruising altitude and the captain has turned off the seatbelt sign. We wish you a pleasant flight.”

The cabin space of an aircraft is not dissimilar to that of the airport express train with the exception of two main differences: One is that the duration of using the non-place of an airline cabin is usually hours longer than that of the airport express. Second is that in airplane cabins, all passengers have assigned seating. The inclusion of seating on public transportation can be contributed mainly to concerns on safety and comfort. However, the use of seating in vehicles has a connotation relating to the history of travel and social classes. According to Ingold, the emergence of travel in a European concept originated in the eighteenth century and was considered a luxury.[25]Not only was walking seen as unnecessary labour, but it was also an indication of social classes.[26]Elites who could afford to travel further based philosophies of travelling around the idea on the lack of using one’s body, stating that “point-to-point” (meaning vehicles bringing the traveller to and from their desired origins and destinations) was the ideal way to travel as it promoted mind-body separation.[27]When the body is at rest, the mind is the most active, and as a result, the traveller can fully appreciate the landscape they journey to visit, with no bodily distractions.[28]Although aviation was originally intended for mail delivery and commercial air travel was a by-product, travellers were still provided with a sense of prominence through seats (figure 10).[29]This, of course, also relates to safety concerns while flying, like stability during turbulence, but assigned seating nevertheless becomes an indicator of social class and luxury.

The distinction of social classes was further deepened with the introduction of different cabin classes. Prior to the 1950s, flying itself was the luxury. However, as flying became more affordable to the public, cabin classes differentiating passenger status was introduced first by Trans World Airlines in 1955, with “coach” and “first” class (figure 11 & 12).[30]Services that come with higher cabin classes, like larger legroom and amenities, largely revolves around values of what Ingold calls the “sitting society”, where the ability to live without leaving one’s chair is an indication of higher social class.[31]First-class services today offer passengers the luxury of living while sitting: To ensure the passenger is comfortable, legroom is ample, seat positions are adjustable, in-flight entertainment screens are larger, while flight attendants tend to almost every need of the first-class traveller (figure 13, 14, & 15). Such seating adjustments and in-flight services ensure that the first-class passenger can stay seated as much as possible, thus indicating the important status of the passenger. The effects of the “sitting society” are therefore evident in the spatial designs of different cabins. Similar to the luxury of priority boarding they experience in the boarding lounge, higher class passengers again enjoy individuality among a sea of anonymous passengers in the air. Curtains blocking them off from economy class broadcast their importance to other passengers through their elevated level of privacy and comfort.

Resembling the airport express train, the airplane cabin also searches for identity through its use of advertising. The differentiation between corporate identity and national identity is often even more blurred in airplane cabins, as many airlines are national airlines, where the corporation operating the airline represents an entire nation’s identity. As one sits in their seat, they are surrounded by icons – a rooster, an eagle, a maple leaf – indicating the ties the airlines have with their home nation (figure 16, 17, & 18). These ties are then more explicitly demonstrated with the descriptive names of airlines such as Air China, United Airlines, and Air Canada. The branding of airlines is often based on exploiting their ties with national identity, resulting in slogans and announcements such as “enjoy our friendly Canadian service” and “Experience Thai hospitality”. The deliberate connection made by airlines to nations as well as the desire to differentiate individual social classes here demonstrates how we search for identity in a non-placesuch as an airline cabin.

Arrival: JFK John F. Kennedy International Airport’s TWA Terminal, mid-century modernity, and non-placeness

“Good evening. Welcome to New York JFK Airport where the local time is 5:30 pm. After going through the Unites States customs, passengers arriving from Beijing Daxing Airport can claim their luggage at carousel 9. Welcome to New York and we wish you a pleasant evening.”

Opened in 1962, the TWA Terminal was originally designed to be used as Trans World Airlines’ (TWA) New York aircraft hub.[32] Because Trans World Airlines had adopted the “hub-and-spoke” model of flying, meaning its operation relied on gathering passengers at specific airport hubs and packing passengers into 400-seat jumbo jets, the airline required an expanded terminal at John F. Kennedy Airport to serve its increasing demands of transatlantic routes.[33] While Howard Hughes, the president of TWA, had no desire to make the construction of their New York hub a major statement since TWA’s main hub was in St Louis, architect Eero Saarinen capitalized on nostalgia and romanticism at that time with a Futurist design.[34]The central element of the entire design is the “head house”, where a wing-shaped roof houses passenger check-in and departure lobbies as well as arrival baggage claims (figure 19 & 20).[35]The head house is connected to two “satellites”, two curved branches that house boarding gates and parked aircraft, via two tube-shaped corridors that were decorated with red carpet (figure 21).[36]Saarinen’s original design, similar to the case of Beijing Daxing Airport, was driven by efficiency. By clustering service functions in the head house, Saarinen separated the functions of the head house and the satellite. The head house is dedicated to people who wish to socialize - for example, passengers who arrive early and are not in a rush to board and people waiting for the arrival of their travelling relatives. Once passengers cross the tube-shaped corridor into the satellites, the space is dedicated to business, efficiency, and speed. Saarinen’s use of the latest technology in the airport, like centralized public announcement systems, motorized walkways, and computerized check-in and baggage claim machines illustrates how efficiency was a driving factor in the design of the terminal (figure 22 & 23).[37]

While the strategic emphasis on efficiency and innovation ambiguously worked in favour of the Chinese government in the case of Daxing Airport, the highlights of such modernity of TWA Flight Centre are explicitly tied to the corporate identity of Trans World Airlines. In the 1950s, TWA was one of the largest American airlines, part of the “Big Four” American airliners including American, Eastern, and United.[38] Since TWA had suffered financial difficulties in its earlier years between the 1930s and 1940s, the construction of a new terminal was an ideal opportunity to re-establish their corporate image as contemporary and relevant.[39] Saarinen seized the opportunity to make a statement, on behalf of TWA, with his design. The curvilinear silhouette successfully monumentalizes the terminal through careful orientation of the building on the site. The Idlewild site, deemed undesirable by other airlines because of its distance from the runway and proximity to a parallel highway, was capitalized by Saarinen, as he oriented the entire terminal to the arriving highway and allowed air travellers to marvel at the terminal, and the company it belongs to, as they approach the airport (figure 24).[40]

The desire to search for identity in a non-placesuch as the TWA Terminal is explicit, as corporate identity is constantly broadcasted to visitors. The difference between the TWA Terminal and Daxing Airport’s search for identity is the lack of national identity. While TWA is considered a legacy airline, an airline that operated prior to air traffic liberation acts in 1978, TWA was not considered the national carrier because the US did not have an official flag carrier. Moreover, the decorations surrounding the airport do not refer to explicit American icons. Public spaces were carpeted in TWA’s trademark “Seneca special red” while wayfinding signage, such as monitors displaying flight schedules, only had the logo “TWA” across the top (figure 25).[41]Signages in the TWA Terminal not only highlight the corporate identity of TWA explicitly and omits national identity altogether. The curvilinear frames surrounding rectangular monitors further reference the design of the terminal itself (figure 26). This can be interpreted as how a self-conscious non-placeis not satisfied with the identity assigned to it by a corporation, but further seeks to become a place itself. While TWA Terminal originated as a purely functional non-place, with its heavy emphasis on technology and efficiency, Saarinen’s striking design set the Terminal on a path to become a place.TWA Terminal’s placeness would embody not just TWA’s identity but become an icon of mid-twentieth century aviation culture.

Stay: TWA Hotel, Place Identity achieved through memory and nostalgia

“Welcome to the TWA Hotel. Please enjoy a complimentary beverage while we process your reservation status. Feel free to look through our list of restaurants and make a reservation at the cocktail lounge or visit our hotel shop across from the check-in kiosk. We wish you a pleasant stay.”

As TWA ceased operations in 2001, the TWA Terminal has undergone several different phases of uses.[42]The Terminal was closed during 2001-2005 after TWA was acquired by American Airlines. During the closure, plans to encircle Saarinen’s headhouse with a larger terminal were proposed but were met with backlash by aviation and architectural enthusiasts, including architect Phillip Johnson, alike.[43] In 2005, JetBlue Airways, responding to their fast-growing demands, constructed JetBlue Terminal 5, a triangular terminal located behind Saarinen’s original terminal (figure 27).[44]Parts of Saarinen’s original terminal were demolished to make way for JetBlue’s expansion but the iconic head house and tube corridors were kept untouched.[45]JetBlue’s passengers would access their departure terminal with a looped road that goes around Saarinen’s original terminal.

In 2015, JetBlue announced that Saarinen’s original terminal would be converted into a hotel.[46]The hotel began construction in 2016 and opened to the public in 2019.[47]The TWA Hotel almost preserves Saarinen’s head house and tube corridor entirely but repurposes the interior of the headhouse into the hotel’s lobby (figure 28, 29, & 30). Existing spaces, such as the Sunken Lounge that was intended to provide seating to air travellers waiting for their departure, were given another layer of commercial activity with its conversion into reserve-only restaurants (figure 31).[48]

Hotels are typically considered non-places due to their generic spatial qualities. However, the non-placeness of the TWA Hotel is debatable. While TWA Hotel provides generic bedrooms to travellers, its hotel lobby, Saarinen’s original head house, clearly refers to the nostalgia revolving around aviation in the mid-twentieth century. The branding of TWA Hotel blurs the line between corporate identity and travel memory. The logo and visual branding of the Hotel continues to use the original TWA fonts, logos and colours, even though TWA is no longer an existing corporation. The original signs and logos that advertised the airline are kept and adapted now to associate with the hotel corporation (figure 32). Amenities in the hotel, including stationery, towels, and coffee stirrers utilize and highlight the cultural capita Trans World Airlines possessed while downplaying the corporate identity of the hotel. This is evident in the goods sold at the “TWA shop”, where almost all the products only feature Trans World Airlines’ original logo and font while the word “hotel” is barely seen on any of the goods (figure 33).[49]The epitome of TWA Hotel’s capitalization on mid-century aviation nostalgia is the “Connie Cocktail Lounge”, where the hotel converted one of TWA’s Lockheed Constellation aircraft into a cocktail lounge (figure 34).[50]The airplane sits between the court of the headhouse, the hotel living towers, and the JetBlue terminal, making it a clear focal point, and is only accessible if hotel stayers leave the head house, step onto the tarmac, and board the aircraft (figure 35 & 36). The pilgrimage-like journey one must take to arrive at Connie’s Cocktail Lounge transforms an airplane cabin, a non-placemostly dictated by function and efficiency, into an established place. The cabin space of Connie’s Cocktail Lounge, embodying mid-twentieth century aviation culture, is the destination visitors journey for.  TWA Hotel’s strategic emphasis on the Trans World Airline’s and TWA Terminal’s cultural weight in aviation history and downplaying of its own corporate identity allows the TWA Hotel to gain a stronger sense of place.

Ending the Journey

As the journey from Beijing to New York comes to an end, shared characteristics of non-places that were visited emerge. In both train and airplane cabin spaces, where the goal is to transport one from point to point, the vagueness and indescribability of these spaces are more prominent. These vehicle spaces thus link themselves to corporations to seek an identity. Airports, both in the case of Beijing’s Daxing Airport and TWA Terminal, are elements of larger networks. As airports represent cities, the non-placegains a sense of identity through showing visitors they are symbols of larger institutions, including international corporations, cities, and nations. Using the transitional spaces we visited through this journey, a pattern emerges: Non-placesseek identity and desire to be places. The start of this transition from a non-place to a place occurs when a non-place seeks to stand out through design. As a quest to terminate the discomfort caused by the ambiguity of non-places, we grasp at any text or image that evokes identity. We are only satisfied when we can generalize and label non-places.  

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[1] Janet R. Bednarek, Airports, Cities, and the Jet Age: US Airports Since 1945 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 4.

[2] Alexander von Vegesack and Jochen Eisenbrand, Airworld: Design and Architecture for Air Travel. (Weil am Rhein: Vitra Design Museum, 2004), 24.

[3] Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 78.

[4] Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 81.

[5] Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 104.

[6] Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 82.

[7] Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity,trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 96.

[8] Wang Hairong, “A Phoenix Set To Take Off.” Beijing Review62, vol 21 (2019): 30.

[9] Alex Limoski, “Cleared for Landing.” Architectural Record207, vol 7 (2019): 81.

[10] Alex Limoski, “Cleared for Landing.” Architectural Record207, vol 7 (2019): 81.

[11] Nick Mafi, “Taking Flight.” Architectural Digest 76, vol.11 (2019): 128.

[12] Alex Limoski, “Cleared for Landing.” Architectural Record207, vol 7 (2019): 81.

[13] Alex Limoski, “Cleared for Landing.” Architectural Record207, vol 7 (2019): 81.

[14] Patrik Schumacher, “Parametricism: A New Global Style for Architecture and Urban Design,” Architectural Design 79, no.4 (2009): 15.

[15] Patrik Schumacher, “Parametricism: A New Global Style for Architecture and Urban Design,” Architectural Design 79, no.4 (2009): 15.

[16] “Beijing Daxing International Airport,” Zaha Hadid Architects, accessed April 27, 2020, https://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/beijing-new-airport-terminal-building/.

[17] “Beijing Daxing International Airport,” Zaha Hadid Architects, accessed April 27, 2020, https://www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/beijing-new-airport-terminal-building/.

[18] “GDP (current US$) – China,” World Bank, accessed April 28, 2020, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2018&locations=CN&start=1960&view=chart.

[19] William G. Boltz, “Early Chinese Writing,” World Archaeology17, No. 3 (1986): 436.

[20]Donald S. Zagoria and Lucy Edwards Despard, “The Origins of the Cultural Revolution. Vol. II: The Great Leap Forward, 1958-1960.” Foreign Affairs 62, Issue 2 (1983): 474. http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=17052767&site=eds-live&scope=site.

[21]  Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 102.

[22]  Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 102.

[23]  Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995),102.

[24]  Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 103.

[25]

Tim Ingold, Culture on the Ground: The World Perceived Through Feet,” Journal of Material Culture 9 (2004): 321.

[26] Tim Ingold, Culture on the Ground: The World Perceived Through Feet,” Journal of Material Culture 9 (2004): 321.

[27] Tim Ingold, Culture on the Ground: The World Perceived Through Feet,” Journal of Material Culture 9 (2004): 321.

[28] Tim Ingold, Culture on the Ground: The World Perceived Through Feet,” Journal of Material Culture 9 (2004): 321.

[29] Alexander von Vegesack and Jochen Eisenbrand, Airworld: Design and Architecture for Air Travel. (Weil am Rhein: Vitra Design Museum, 2004), 63.

[30]Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 49.

[31] Tim Ingold, Culture on the Ground: The World Perceived Through Feet,” Journal of Material Culture 9 (2004): 323.

[32] Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 23.

[33] Janet R. Bednarek, Airports, Cities, and the Jet Age: US Airports Since 1945. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. 13

[34]Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 156.

[35]Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 56.

[36] Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 56.

[37]Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 45.

[38] Howard Turner, "TURBULENCE in the Airline Industry," SGR Law 14 (2005): https://www.sgrlaw.com/ttl-articles/859/

[39] Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 31.

[40] Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 75.

[41] Kornel Ringli, Designing TWA: Eero Saarinen's Airport Terminal in New York, trans. David Koralek (Zurich, Switzerland: Park Books, 2015), 75.

[42] David W. Dunlap, “Saarinen Terminal to Reopen at Kennedy Airport,” The New York Times, last modified February 21, 2008, https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/02/21/saarinen-terminal-to-reopen-at-kennedy-airport/.

[43] David W. Dunlap, “Planning a Nest of Concrete for a Landmark of Flight,” The New York Times, last modified August 14, 2001, https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/14/nyregion/planning-a-nest-of-concrete-for-a-landmark-of-flight.html?scp=6&sq=%22twa%20flight%20center%22&st=cse.

[44] David W. Dunlap, “Saarinen Terminal to Reopen at Kennedy Airport,” The New York Times, last modified February 21, 2008, https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/02/21/saarinen-terminal-to-reopen-at-kennedy-airport/.

[45] David W. Dunlap, “Saarinen Terminal to Reopen at Kennedy Airport,” The New York Times, last modified February 21, 2008, https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/02/21/saarinen-terminal-to-reopen-at-kennedy-airport/.

[46] Craig Karmin and Ted Mann “JetBlue Wants to Turn Former TWA Terminal Into Hotel,” The Wall Street Journal, last modified April 14, 2015, https://www.wsj.com/articles/jet-blue-wants-to-get-into-hotel-business-at-jfks-former-twa-terminal-1429035857.

[47] "Up, up and away at the TWA Hotel," CBS News, last modified May 12, 2019, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/up-up-and-away-at-the-twa-hotel-at-jfk/.

[48] “The Sunken Lounge,” TWA Hotel, accessed May 5, 2020, https://www.twahotel.com/thesunkenlounge.

[49] “TWA Shop,” TWA Hotel, accessed May 5, 2020, https://shop.twahotel.com/.

[50] “Connie’s History,” TWA Hotel, accessed May 5, 2020, https://www.twahotel.com/connie-airplane/connies-history.